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Exercise of using chemical substances to lighten the skin

Pare whitening
18891109 Arsenic complexion wafers - Helena Independent.png

A 19th century advertisement for arsenic wafers in the United States
Other names Skin lightening, brightening, depigmentation, bleaching

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Peel whitening, also known as skin lightening and pare bleaching, is the practise of using chemical substances in an attempt to lighten the skin or provide an even skin color by reducing the melanin concentration in the skin. Several chemicals take been shown to be effective in skin whitening, while some have proven to be toxic or take questionable condom profiles. This includes mercury compounds which may cause neurological problems and kidney issues.[1]

In a number of African countries, between 25 and lxxx% of women regularly use skin whitening products.[ii] In Asia, this number is effectually 40%.[2] In India, specifically, over one-half of pare care products are sold to whiten skin.[3] [ii] In Pakistan, where skin lightening products are popular, creams have been found to contain toxic levels of hydroquinone and mercury.[4] [v]

Efforts to lighten the skin appointment back to at to the lowest degree the 1500s in Asia.[vi] While a number of agents—such equally kojic acid and blastoff hydroxy acid—are allowed in cosmetics in Europe, a number of others such as hydroquinone and tretinoin are not.[six] While some countries do non allow mercury compounds in cosmetics, others yet do, and they can be purchased online.[2]

Utilize [edit]

Areas of increased pigmentation such equally moles may be depigmented to match the surrounding skin. Effective agents for specific areas include corticosteroids, tretinoin, and hydroquinone.[vi] These agents, all the same, are non allowed in cosmetics in Europe due to concerns of side effects.[vi] Attempts to whiten large areas of skin may also exist carried out past certain cultures.[6] This may be washed for reasons of appearance, politics, or economics.[half-dozen] Skin whiteners tin help you achieve lighter skin tones, many of them contain harmful ingredients similar the steroid clobetasol propionate, inorganic mercury (mercuric chloride or amalgamated mercury), glutathione (an antioxidant traditionally used in cancer treatment), and the organic compound hydroquinone.[vii] Skin lighteners' main health risks are linked to: (i) The overuse of topicalclobetasol, which can cause systemic steroid effects from daily usage, peculiarly on broad skin regions; and (ii) concealed mercury content, which tin can lead to mercury poisoning depending on private susceptibility. Many skin whiteners contain a toxic form of mercury as the agile ingredient.[2] Their utilize, therefore, may harm a person'southward health and is illegal in many countries.[2] [8]

Hydroquinone is a normally used agent in skin whiteners, though the European Spousal relationship banned information technology from cosmetics in 2000.[9] It works by decreasing melanin production.[9] Tretinoin, also known as all-trans retinoic acid, may be used to whiten specific areas.[six] It may be used in combination with steroids and hydroquinone.[6]

Alpha hydroxy acid (AHA) is too used as a skin bleacher, but its biochemical machinery is unclear.[six] Side furnishings may include sunday sensitivity, skin redness, thickening, or itching.[half-dozen] Low concentrations may be used in cosmetics.[half-dozen] Kojic acid has been found to be an effective lightener in some studies, and is also immune to exist used in cosmetics.[6] Side effects, however, include redness and eczema.[6]

Glutathione is the most common agent taken by rima oris in an attempt to whiten the skin.[10] Information technology may too be used as a cream.[10] Information technology is an antioxidant normally made by the body.[10] Whether or non it actually works is unclear every bit of 2019.[11] Due to side effects that may consequence with intravenous use, the government of the Philippines recommends against such employ.[12]

One 2017 review found tentative evidence of benefit of tranexamic acid in melasma,[thirteen] while another 2017 review found that prove to support its use was insufficient.[14] Azelaic acid may be a second-line option for melasma.[15] A number of types of laser treatments have been used in melasma with some prove of do good.[16] Reoccurrence, however, is common and certain types of lasers tin result in more pigmentation.[16]

Side furnishings [edit]

Skin lightening creams have commonly contained mercury, hydroquinone, and corticosteroids.[17] Because these compounds can induce both superficial and internal side effects, they are illegal to use and marketplace in multiple nations.[17] [18] Withal, various chemical studies signal that these compounds keep to be used in sold cosmetic products, though they are not explicitly declared as ingredients.[nineteen] [1]

Prolonged usage of mercury-based products can ultimately discolor the skin, equally mercury will accumulate within the dermis.[twenty] Mercury toxicity tin cause acute symptoms such equally pneumonitis and gastric irritation.[20] However, according to a study by Antoine Mahé and his colleagues, mercurial compounds can as well contribute to long-term renal and neurological complications, the latter of which includes insomnia, retentivity loss, and irritability.[1]

Other studies accept explored the impact of hydroquinone exposure on health.[17] Hydroquinone apace absorbs into the trunk via dermal contact; long-term usage has been found to cause nephrotoxicity and benzene-induced leukemia in bone marrow.[21] A study past Pascal del Giudice and Pinier Yves indicated that hydroquinone usage is strongly correlated with the development of ochronosis, cataracts, patchy depigmentation, and contact dermatitis.[17] Ochronosis can subsequently lead to lesions and squamous cell carcinomas.[twenty] While hydroquinone has non been officially classified equally a carcinogen, it can metabolize into carcinogenic derivatives and induce genetic changes in the form of Deoxyribonucleic acid damages.[1] [21]

Additionally, corticosteroids have become some of the almost commonly incorporated lightening agents.[twenty] Long-term usage over big areas of skin may promote percutaneous absorption, which tin produce complications such as peel atrophy and fragility, glaucoma, cataracts, edemas, osteoporosis, menstrual irregularities, and growth suppression.[xx] A 2000 study performed in Dakar, Senegal, indicated that chronic usage of skin lighteners was a risk cistron for hypertension and diabetes.[one]

Chemically lightened peel is also more highly susceptible to sun damage and dermal infection.[xx] [ane] Long-term users of skin bleachers can hands develop fungal infections and viral warts.[20] Pregnant users may also feel health complications for both them and their children.[xx] [i]

Rate of usage [edit]

Co-ordinate to Yetunde Mercy Olumide, advertisements for pare lighteners frequently present their products as stepping stones to attain greater social upper-case letter.[22] For case, representatives of India's Fair & Lovely cosmetics asserted that their products immune for socioeconomic mobility, akin to instruction.[22]

Skin whiteners typically range widely in pricing; Olumide attributes this to the desire to portray whitening every bit financially accessible to all.[22] These products are marketed to both men and women, though studies signal that, in Africa, women employ skin bleachers more than than men do.[22] [23] A written report by Lester Davids and his colleagues indicated that nations in Africa present high rates of usage for peel bleachers.[24] Though many products accept been banned due to toxic chemic compositions, Davids constitute that regulating policies are often not strictly enforced.[24]

In Bharat, the sales of skin lightening creams in 2012 totaled around 258 tons, and in 2013 sales were about U.s.$300 meg.[25] [26] Past 2018, the manufacture for lightening cosmetics in India had achieved a internet worth of nearly $180 one thousand thousand and an annual growth charge per unit of 15%.[27] As of 2013, the global market place for peel lighteners was projected to reach $xix.viii billion past 2018 based on sales growth primarily in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.[28]

In the U.k., many skin whiteners are illegal due to possible agin effects. Such products are oft still sold even after shops have been prosecuted. Trading standards departments lack resources to deal with the problem effectively.[29]

Motivations [edit]

Historian Evelyn Nakano Glenn attributes sensitivities to skin tone amongst African Americans to the history of slavery.[thirty] Lighter-skinned African Americans were perceived to be more intelligent and skilled than dark-skinned African Americans, who were relegated to more physically taxing, manual labor.[30]

Studies have additionally linked paler pare to achieving various forms of social standing and mobility.[31] [32] [18] A written report past Kelly Lewis and her colleagues constitute that, in Tanzania, residents choose to bleach their skin to appear more European and impress peers and potential partners.[32] Both advertisements and consumers have suggested that whiter skin can raise individual sexual attractiveness.[33] Sociologist Margaret Hunter noted the influence of mass-marketing and celebrity culture emphasizing whiteness as an platonic of beauty.[31] A study by Itisha Nagar also revealed that lighter skin tones in both men and women in Republic of india improved their prospects for union.[27]

Skin whitening is mutual throughout Asia. In South Korea, light pare is considered an ideal of beauty and most Due south Koreans believe that having paler skin is the only way to wait beautiful.[34] In South Korea, pare whitening is a multi-billion-dollar industry.[35] The K-pop and K-drama industries are saturated with fair-skinned celebrities, some of whom serve every bit brand ambassadors and beauty ethics.[34] The increasing popularity of Yard-pop and K-beauty has driven the skin whitening trend elsewhere in Asia, specially in poorer countries like Thailand, where many have begun to apply unsafe skin-whitening products.[36]

Other motivations for peel whitening include desiring softer skin and wanting to conceal discolorations arising from pimples, rashes, or chronic skin conditions.[32] Individuals with depigmenting weather condition such equally vitiligo have too been known to lighten their skin to achieve an even skin tone.[37]

Mechanism of action [edit]

Pare whitening agents piece of work by reducing the presence of melanin pigment in the skin. To accomplish this, there are several possible mechanisms of action:[38]

  • Inhibition of the activity of tyrosinase: The catalytic action of tyrosinase is inhibited by the peel whitening agent.
  • Inhibition of the expression or activation of tyrosinase: The antimelanogenic amanuensis causes less tyrosinase to exist generated or prevents tyrosinase from being activated to its functional grade.
  • Scavenging of the intermediate products of melanin synthesis.
  • Preventing the transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes.
  • Straight destroying existing melanin.
  • Destroying melanocytes.

Inhibition of tyrosinase [edit]

Upregulation of tyrosinase acquired by tyrosinase inhibitors. Several peel whitening agents, including tyrosinase inhibitors, have been found to cause an increase in the expression of tyrosinase, which by itself would increment melanin synthesis.[39]

Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is the principal transcription cistron that controls the expression of TYR, TRP1 and TRP2, MART1, PMEL17, and many other important proteins involved in the office of melanocytes.[notes i] Downregulation of MITF decreases melanogenesis[notes ane] and is a mechanism of action of some peel whitening agents.[forty] Various signaling pathways and genetic mutations influence the expression of MITF.[notes 2]

MC1R receptor and campsite [edit]

The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is a transmembrane and Thousand-poly peptide coupled receptor expressed in melanocytes. MC1R is an important target for the regulation of melanogenesis.[44] [45] [41] Agonism of MC1R increases the ratio of eumelanin to pheomelanin and increases the generation of melanin overall.

The MC1R and campsite signaling pathway[44] [45] [46] starts with the activation of MC1R, which causes activation of adenylyl cyclase (Ac), which produces cyclic adenosine monophosphate (army camp), which activates protein kinase A (PKA), which activates by protein phosphorylation army camp response element-binding protein (CREB), which upregulates MITF, of which CREB is a transcription factor.

Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), beta-melanocyte stimulating hormone (β-MSH), and adrenocorticotropic hormone are endogenous agonists of MC1R.[43] : 1175 Agouti signaling protein (ASIP) appears to be the only endogenous antagonist of MC1R. Synthetic MC1R agonists have been designed, such equally the peptides afamelanotide and melanotan II.[44]

Mutations of the MC1R cistron correlate and are at least partially responsible for ruby-red hair, white skin, and an increased risk for skin cancer in some individuals.[44] [47] [45] [48] [49] [50] [43] : 1175

Transfer of melanosomes [edit]

Within the skin, melanocytes are present in the basal layer of the epidermis; from these melanocytes originate dendrites that achieve keratinocytes.[notes 3]

Melanosomes along with the melanin they incorporate are transferred from melanocytes to keratinocytes when keratinocytes are depression in the epidermis.[notes iv] Keratinocytes carry the melanosomes with them equally they move towards the surface. Keratinocytes contribute to skin pigmentation past holding the melanin originated in melanocytes and inducing melanogenesis through chemical signals directed at melanocytes.[notes ii] The transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes is a necessary condition for the visible pigmentation of the pare.[51] Blocking this transfer is a mechanism of activeness of some skin whitening agents.[xl] [38]

The protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) is a transmembrane and Thou-poly peptide coupled receptor expressed in keratinocytes and involved in melanocyte transfer.[notes five] Antagonists of PAR2 inhibit the transfer of melanosomes and accept skin whitening affects, while agonists of PAR2 accept the opposite issue.[notes 5]

Destroying melanocytes [edit]

Some compounds are known to destroy melanocytes; this mechanism of action is often used to remove the remaining pigmentation in cases of vitiligo.[56]

History [edit]

An advertisement from the 1930s for Sweet Georgia Brown skin bleaching cream.

Early on skin whitening practices were non well-documented.[57] Skin whitening is a practice that has made its way across the unabridged world with a multitude of cultures adopting the practice under various ideologies. Commonly, the practice has been marketed towards women nether the pretense that porcelain skin was the ideal representation of dazzler and status.[58] The first recorded practices of pare whitening tin can be traced back to over 200 B.C. beyond a multitude of civilizations which utilized natural sources of ingredients to facilitate the product of skin whitening substances.[59] For case, one of these methods include the employ of beloved and olive oil equally a method of whitening the peel in different civilizations such as in Egypt as well as in Greek civilisation.[59] According to anthropologist Nina Jablonski, these practices did not go publicized until famous figures, such equally Cleopatra and Queen Elizabeth, began to employ them regularly.[57] Corrective formulas initially spread from continental Europe and China to Britain and Japan, respectively.[57] Diverse historians argue that, beyond cultures, skin lightening became a desirable norm due to implications of wealth and purity.[57] [threescore] [22] Although the majority methods of which the skin whitening procedure is undertaken have been deemed unsafe due to various side effects, they are still used for a range of purposes; 1 of which includes the want for improvement of i's socioeconomic status too as the socialization in some cultures of one's perceived inferiority based on having darker or lighter pare than others.[61] [58] This process through which perceived inferiority tin can be exercised physically tin be looked dorsum on through a foundational perspective of the "Nigrescence Theory". This theory is explains the distinction of one's own socialized identity through various stages and the pigmentation of skin that someone is built-in with that is associated with the socialization procedure inside a civilisation.[62] More specifically, out of the iv stages associated with this theory, the get-go 1, named the "pre-encounter" stage, highlight the underlying concept i not associating themselves with their ain culture or values due partly to the misinformation one has been taught to believe and therefore seeks validation and worthiness from those who have misinformed that person.[62]

Asia [edit]

The history of pare whitening in Eastern asia dates to ancient times. To exist light in an surroundings in which the sun was harsh implied wealth and nobility because those individuals were able to remain indoors while servants had to labor exterior.[63]

Ancient Asian cultures also associated calorie-free skin with feminine beauty. "Jade" white pare in Korea is known to have been the platonic as far back equally the Gojoseon era. Japan's Edo period saw the start of a trend of women whitening their faces with rice pulverization every bit a "moral duty". Chinese women valued a "milk white" complexion and swallowed powdered pearls towards that cease.[64]

Skin lightening practices had accomplished corking importance in Eastern asia as early on every bit the 16th century.[57] Similar to early on European cosmetics, white makeup was reported to cause severe health problems and physical malformations.[57] In Japan, samurai mothers who used lead-based white paint on their faces often had children who exhibited symptoms of lead toxicity and stunted bone growth.[57] Japanese dignity, including both men and women, frequently applied white lead pulverisation to their faces prior to the Meiji restoration.[65] Following the Meiji restoration, men and women reserved white atomic number 82 makeup and traditional attire for special occasions.[65] In China, Korea, and Nihon, washing i's face with rice water was also good, as it was believed to naturally whiten skin.[57] [66] Historians likewise noted that as Due east Asian women immigrated to the United States, immigrant women engaged in skin lightening more oftentimes than women who did not immigrate.[30] Advertisements were a big influence in the marketable entreatment of skin whitening in People's republic of china and Taiwan.[67] Skincare products that are recognized to protect the skin included chemicals that assist in skin whitening.[67] These products were marketed and promoted equally the solution to appearing young forever.[67] Skincare products have been predominantly created to serve every bit anti-aging to women in Prc and Taiwan of all ages.[67]

Nina Jablonski and Evelyn Nakano Glenn both assert that skin whitening in many South and Southeast Asian nations such as the Philippines grew in popularity through these nations' histories of European colonization.[57] [68] Multiple studies discover that preferences for lighter skin in India were historically linked to both the Indian degree organisation and centuries of outside rule by light-skinned nations.[69] [seventy] In the Philippines and many Southeast Asian countries, lighter skin was associated with college social status.[thirty] Historians indicate that the social hierarchies in the Philippines encompasses a spectrum of skin tones due to intermarriages between indigenous populations, East Asian settlers from Japan and Red china, and European and American colonists.[68]

In Southern asia, the color of one's skin determined social condition every bit information technology implied the circumstances of one'due south positionality.[71] While pale skin suggested being away from the sun, darker skin signified the event of working in external weather.[72] With colonial influence from Britian's occupation, there was a stardom in superiority and inferiority.[71] With those in power attributing pale complexions, there was an association tied amongst class and position.[71] The South Asian film industry was a contributing cistron from colonialism in the reinforcement of these narratives.[72] Tumeric was a used ingredient in lightening skin tone complexion to be seen equally desirable.[72]

Europe [edit]

Peel whitening practices have been documented in ancient Hellenic republic and Rome.[73] Bleaching cosmetics ofttimes incorporated white atomic number 82 carbonate and mercury as lightening agents.[73] These products were ultimately known to cause pare erosion.[73]

Skin whitening was often documented during the Elizabethan era.[74] Queen Elizabeth's own usage of skin lighteners became a prominent standard of beauty.[75] Additionally, co-ordinate to medieval historians, light peel was an indicator of aristocracy and higher socioeconomic class, as laborers were more than frequently exposed to outdoor sunlight.[76] [77] Men and women lightened their skin superficially and chemically, using white powder and Venetian ceruse, respectively.[78] [76] Venetian ceruse consisted of a lead and vinegar mixture, known to cause pilus loss, skin corrosion, muscle paralysis, tooth deterioration, blindness, and premature aging.[78] [79] [77] Venetian ceruse was also reported as a source of lead poisoning.[78] [75] Lye and ammonia, found in other peel whiteners, compounded the toxic furnishings of lead.[75] Other practices washed in the name of pare whitening included washing i's face in urine and ingesting wafers of arsenic.[73] [77]

The states [edit]

Co-ordinate to scholar Shirley Anne Tate, peel whiteners in the United States initially were predominantly used by white women.[75] European immigrants introduced recipes for cosmetic skin lighteners into the Colonial history of the Us American colonies, where they eventually evolved to contain Ethnic peoples of the due west Americas ethnic and West African herbal traditions.[75] Skin whitening grew in popularity in the 1800s, as white women in the Usa began to emulate the skin-whitening practices performed by those in Europe.[75] As such, American women similarly used ceruse, arsenic wafers, and products that contained toxic dosages of lead and mercury.[75]

Skin lightening was often non well-received; women who used skin whiteners were described as artificial, while men who used skin whiteners were described equally overly effeminate.[75] Despite this reception, skin whitening remained a pop do. Historians also note that advertisements for skin whiteners in the 20th century often associated pale skin with gentility.[30]

According to historian Kathy Peiss, skin whitening among black American women had been documented starting in the mid-nineteenth century.[eighty] Historians credited the increased marketing of skin whiteners to the culture of the Jim Crow era, as black Americans faced connected social and legal restrictions.[57] [fourscore] Cosmetic advertisements directed at black consumers often framed resulting lighter complexions as cleaner and improve.[eighty] [68] Simultaneously, however, corrective and beauty magazines often published criticisms of black women who used skin bleachers, arguing that they appeared unnatural and fraudulent.[80] [68]

In the 1930s, tanned pare became popular amongst white women as a new symbol of wealth; some historians assert that industrialization had created indoor settings for labor, causing tanned skin to be associated more than with sunbathing, travel, and leisure.[77] [75] The growth of the Black is Beautiful motility in the 1960s, combined with greater awareness of potential wellness hazards, also temporarily slowed the sale and popularity of pare bleachers.[57] Withal, past the 1980s, paler peel once more became more desirable, every bit tanning became linked to premature crumbling and lord's day impairment.[75] [68]

Latin America [edit]

Pare whitening practices have likewise been well documented in Southward America and the Caribbean. Sociologists such as Jack Menke noted that early pare lightening practices among indigenous women were motivated by the attentions of conquistadores.[81] [82] Recovered journals from women in Suriname indicated that they used vegetable mixtures to lighten their skin, which produced painful side effects.[82]

Diverse studies have linked the prevalence of skin whitening in Latin American nations to their histories and legacies of colonization and slavery.[83] [66] [81] Witness accounts in colonial Jamaica reported that women practiced "flaying" and "skinning" on themselves, using astringent lotions to announced lighter.[83] Caribbean creole women were likewise observed to treat their pare with cashew nut oil, which burned the external layers of skin.[83]

Skin whitening practices grew in popularity, partly as a consequence of blanqueamiento in Latin America.[84] The ideologies behind blanqueamiento promoted the idea of social bureaucracy, based on Eurocentric features and skin tone.[85]

Africa [edit]

Records signal prominent usage of skin lighteners in Southward Africa beginning in the 20th century.[24] Historians advise that this may be associated with the passage of the Colored Labor Preference Human activity, in 1955.[86] Peel lighteners in South Africa were showtime marketed to white consumers, then eventually to consumers of color.[87] Initially, skin whitening was typically good by rural and poor South African women; withal, studies indicate that the practice has get increasingly prevalent among black women with higher incomes and levels of education.[68] Historian Lynn Thomas attributes the initial popularity of these skin whiteners to the socially desired implications of limited outdoor labor, sexual relationships with lighter-skinned partners, and lighter-skinned heritage.[87] Starting in the 1970s, the South African government established regulations for skin whitening products, banning products that contained mercury or high levels of hydroquinone.[88] By the 1980s, critiques of skin whitening had go incorporated into the anti-apartheid movement, given skin whitening's agin consequences on health and its social implications of colorism.[88]

In Ghana, preferences for lighter skin had been documented get-go in the 16th century.[83] Shirley Anne Tate attributes this to the aesthetics and statuses promoted during the period of colonial rule, citing the social influence and wealth of notable Euro-Ghanaian families.[83] Other studies found that, in Tanzania, skin bleaching has been regularly practiced by middle and working classes, every bit light peel was perceived to facilitate social mobility.[89] [83]

Skin whitening practices in several other African countries increased following the onset of independence movements against European colonial rule.[90] [91] Maya Allen attributed this to the increased period of European products and commercial influence into colonized regions.[ninety] Several historians have suggested that the increased prevalence of skin whitening in "the Global South" is potentially tied to both precolonial notions of beauty and post-colonial hierarchies of race.[30]

See also [edit]

  • Colorism
  • Light skin
  • Sun tanning
  • Ethnic plastic surgery
  • Anal bleaching
  • Hypopigmentation
  • Depigmentation
  • Albinism
  • Xeesal
  • Venetian Ceruse – white lead based cosmetic
  • Racial whitening
  • Colonial mentality

Notes [edit]

Italics have been preserved whenever they appear in quotations. Text between square brackets are additional notes non present in the source.

  1. ^ a b "The transcriptional level is the kickoff stage past which the expression of tyrosinase and related melanogenic enzymes may be modulated. Influential in this process, the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is a bones helix-loop-helix leucine zipper transcription gene that regulates melanocyte cellular differentiation as well equally the transcription of melanogenic enzymes (tyrosinase, TYRP1 and TYRP2) and melanosome structural proteins (MART-1 and PMEL17) [references omitted]."[38]
  2. ^ a b Many papers have described the signaling pathways affecting melanogenesis and other functions of melanocytes. The following reviews are suggested reading (all of which are available online at no cost):
    Smit, Vicanova, Pavel (2009).[40] For a description with emphasis on physiology, see Yamaguchi, Hearing (2009)[41] or Kondo (2011).[42] An extensive and detailed review was written by Slominski et al. (2004).[43]
  3. ^ "In the skin, melanocytes are situated on the basal layer which separates dermis and epidermis. 1 melanocyte is surrounded by approximately 36 keratinocytes. Together, they form the so-called epidermal melanin unit of measurement. The melanin produced and stored within the melanocyte in the melanosomal compartment is transported via dendrites to the overlaying keratinocytes."[twoscore]

    "Each melanocyte resides in the basal epithelial layer and, past virtue of its dendrites, interacts with approximately 36 keratinocytes to transfer melanosomes and protect the peel from photograph-induced carcinogenesis. Furthermore, the amount and type of melanin produced and transferred to the keratinocytes with subsequent incorporation, aggregation and degradation influences skin complexion coloration [reference omitted]."[38]

    Wu, Hammer (2014) draw the number of keratinocytes per melanocyte as above forty.[51]

  4. ^ Research most the mechanism of melanosome transfer has been reviewed past Wu, Hammer (2014).[51]
  5. ^ a b References about PAR2 and its function in skin pigmentation: Kim et al. (2016),[52] Choi et al. (2014),[53] Wu, Hammer (2014),[51] Ando et al. (2012),[54] Ando et al. (2010).[55]

References [edit]

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  2. ^ a b c d e f "Mercury in skin lightening products" (PDF). WHO. Archived from the original (PDF) on October thirty, 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  3. ^ Ryle, Robyn (2016). Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration. SAGE Publications. p. PT412. ISBN9781506325484.
  4. ^ Abbas, Nosheen. "Is Islamic republic of pakistan 'obsessed' with fair skin?". BBC News.
  5. ^ Gilani, Sana (17 January 2017). "Did Y'all Know? BBC has declared Pakistani 'whitening creams' POISONOUS". Daily Pakistan.
  6. ^ a b c d east f g h i j k l m Desmedt, B; Courselle, P; De Beer, JO; Rogiers, V; Grosber, One thousand; Deconinck, East; De Paepe, K (June 2016). "Overview of skin whitening agents with an insight into the illegal cosmetic market in Europe". Periodical of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 30 (6): 943–50. doi:10.1111/jdv.13595. PMID 26953335. S2CID 37289982.
  7. ^ Pitche, P.; Kombate, K.; Tchangai-Walla, Grand. (2005). "Cosmetic use of skin bleaching products and associated complications". International Journal of Dermatology. 44: 39–forty. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2005.02811.ten. PMID 16187959. S2CID 37839422.
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  13. ^ Zhou, LL; Baibergenova, A (27 February 2017). "Melasma: systematic review of the systemic treatments". International Periodical of Dermatology. 56 (9): 902–908. doi:10.1111/ijd.13578. PMID 28239840. S2CID 21683251.
  14. ^ Taraz, Chiliad; Niknam, Due south; Ehsani, AH (30 January 2017). "Tranexamic acid in treatment of melasma: A comprehensive review of clinical studies". Dermatologic Therapy. 30 (3): e12465. doi:x.1111/dth.12465. PMID 28133910. S2CID 3910189.
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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_whitening

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